Major Environmental Concerns  

[ Land Degradation | Forests | Biodiversity | Marine and Ice | Ozone Depletion | Pollution | Population ]

A relatively small number of terrestrial species is able to survive the strong climatic contrasts of the Arctic year, characterized by long, cold, dark winters and short, light summers. Only a few species live in the tundra areas through the winter. Other species migrate into the region for the summer season only.

Arctic plants generally have reduced exposed leaf areas (needles or small narrow leaves) or shed their leaves during winter to increase survival when available moisture is very low. In the High Arctic, most plants have developed low and creeping structures more suitable for survival where cold, drying, and damaging winds are prevalent. Bowl-shaped flowers and hairy stems are also common because these features help to capture and retain heat from the sun. In general, the plants have low growth rates, low production capacities, inefficient sexual production, and simple distribution mechanisms. Growth and production decreases from south to north (EEA/NPI, 1996).

Animals face many of the same challenges for surviving in the Arctic. Whether living permanently in the region or visiting for parts of the year, the animals of the Arctic have special adaptations. Both marine and terrestrial mammals have large body-volume-to-surface ratios and store considerable amounts of fat (for example, as in seals, whales, and polar bears). The mammals, as well as birds, are quite mobile with some exceptions such as the Svalbard reindeer, which are extremely sedentary. Many of the animals are long-lived, reproducing often but having few young at a time. This increases the chances of successful reproduction in a situation of high mortality of the young (EEA/NPI, 1996).

Because of the harsh climatic conditions on land, the biodiversity of the region is relatively poor. However, several interesting and important species are endemic or strongly influence the terrestrial ecosystems. These include, for example, the lemming and other rodents, reindeer species, arctic fox, wolverine, wolf, lynx, and brown and polar bears. Some of these species are endangered. In addition, some of the world's largest populations of sea birds are found in the Arctic.

Although listings of Arctic species may appear substantial, the number of species in any given area is usually limited. The diversity and complexity of food webs increase as arctic ecosystems grade into more temperate ecosystems. Because of the relatively low diversity, some food chains are short and simple. An example is the lichen-caribou-wolf chain in Arctic Canada. This food chain is of particular concern as a potential pathway of contaminants because of the importance of caribou and reindeer as a traditional food source for Northerners.

By comparison, the marine environment is far more productive. The North Atlantic waters are among the most productive areas of the world due to the inflow of warmer, nutrient-rich water from the southern Atlantic, the influx of Arctic water bringing nutrient-rich water from ice-covered areas, and considerable vertical blending on the banks in the shallow waters (EEA/NPI, 1996). The nutrient-rich water masses, together with 24-hour sunlight in the summer, support a large production of biomass, such as algae, that are consumed by higher trophic animals and eventually by top predators, including humans.

The region's marine ecosystems are characterized by large stocks of a few key plankton, crustacean, and fish species as well as sea birds and large sea mammals. Capelin, cod, and herring are the largest fish stocks (EEA/NPI, 1996). High natural fluctuations in fish stocks and other species are typical of the region. The more stable benthic (sea bed) ecosystems are rich in species. For example, the Barents Sea and adjacent areas contain 2,000 species of benthic animals, constituting 80-90 per cent of the total number of marine animal species in the area (EEA/NPI, 1996).

Fishing, whaling, and other sea mammal hunting are well-known examples of overexploitation of Arctic resources. Massive hunting of the marine mammals started in the early 1600s. The bowhead whale was practically driven to extinction between 1600 and 1700; the blue whale, fin whale, humpback whale, and sei whale populations were drastically reduced between the mid-1800s and 1920; and the smaller minke whale has been exploited from the 1930s. Walrus and harp and hooded seals were hunted from the early 1800s up to the 1980s. By the 1900s, the survival of the popular polar bear was dangerously threatened throughout the European Arctic area. In the past three decades, overfishing and the decline of certain fish stocks have led to conflicts among nations regarding access and management of resources.

All countries in the region have established protected areas. As of 1995, there were 285 such areas. (See Figure 2.25.) They covered approximately 2.1 million square kilometres, or a little over 14 per cent of the Arctic area (CAFF, 1996b). Some of the first nature protection areas of the Arctic were established in Sweden and Alaska in 1909. The largest protected area is the Northeast Greenland National Park (972,000 square kilometres). This park, which is mainly ice cap, makes up about half of the protected area total. The majority of the protected areas cover terrestrial ecosystems; the marine areas are poorly represented.

United Nations Environment Programme