Both the quantity and the quality of fresh water present major problems over much of the region, and the issue is of growing importance (UNEP, 1996).
Although there is no overall water shortage in Europe, water availability varies considerably. (See Table 2.6.) Malta has the least water available (100 cubic metres per person a year), while Iceland has more than 600,000 cubic metres available a year for each resident (EEA, 1995a). Low availability is a characteristic of the relatively dry, southern countries of the region and those with high population densities and moderate precipitation in the west. Some 70 per cent of all water withdrawals west of the Urals are from surface supplies, many of which are transboundary sources (EEA, 1995a). Rivers are also the principal source of water in Russia although occurrence does not closely match demand. While more than 80 per cent of the population lives in the basins of the Caspian and Azov seas, with high agricultural and industrial potential, these basins contain only 8 per cent of the nation s water resources (Min. of Env. Prot. and Nat. Res. of the Russ. Fed., 1994). Some 90 per cent of Russia s surface runoff drains to the Arctic and Pacific oceans (EEA, 1995a).
Withdrawal as a percentage of available water resources, or water use intensity, ranges from 0.1 per cent in Iceland to more than 70 per cent in Belgium (EEA, 1995a). Annual per capita withdrawal rates range from 156 cubic metres (Luxembourg) to more than 4,000 cubic metres (Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan) (WRI/UNEP/UNDP/WB, 1996). The breakdown into supplies for industry, agriculture, and domestic use varies widely; in European Union (EU) countries, the average ratio is 53:26:19 (EEA, 1995a). Total water withdrawal has stabilized or even decreased in some countries in recent years, including Austria, Bulgaria, the Netherlands, Spain, and Switzerland, and there are some encouraging signs of increased water use efficiency due to improved technology in industrial and agricultural sectors. On the other hand, large amounts of water are being lost through leakages, particularly in urban water systems where losses of up to 80 per cent have been reported (UN-ECE, 1996). On balance, water use is still increasing in the region (EEA, 1995a and 1995b).
The regional imbalance between water supply and demand is a major concern, as it leads to unsustainable exploitation of water resources in many areas. The noticeable increase in frequency and severity of droughts in the region, possibly an early sign of climate change, could exacerbate this situation (UNEP, 1996). Ground water is of enormous importance for public water supplies in the region, providing around 65 per cent of the total (EEA, 1995a). About 60 per cent of European industrial and urban centres are close to areas where ground water is overexploited, and some are experiencing water shortages as a result: 25 per cent of wetlands west of the Urals are threatened by lowered ground-water tables, and extensive tracts of the Mediterranean, Baltic, and Black sea coasts are suffering from salt intrusion in ground-water supplies (EEA, 1995a). The availability of clean water for all sorts of uses has become a topic of intergovernmental and international disputes in the CEE countries (EEA, 1995a).
Water quality is the second freshwater concern. The range of possible contaminants and the mobility of water in the environment makes this a complex issue. Acidification of fresh water has already been mentioned in the context of land degradation above.
European waters tended to show a marked increase in both phosphorus and nitrogen loadings during the 1960s and 1970s, making them more prone to eutrophication and toxicity (EEA, 1995a). While point sources, particularly municipal sewage outflows, make a major contribution to phosphorus levels, in some areas, agriculture is estimated to be responsible for up to 80 per cent of the nitrogen loading and 20-40 per cent of the phosphorus loading in surface waters (EEA, 1995a). Despite a levelling off in average inputs of nitrogen fertilizer to agricultural land and a drastic fall in countries such as Poland, nitrogen levels have continued to rise in more than two thirds of the European rivers measured (EEA, 1995a). In ground water, nitrate concentrations are frequently above levels considered safe for human consumption. Rural communities are particularly at risk from this source. However, for phosphorus the trends have now reversed where countries, mainly in the west and south, have taken positive measures to reduce discharges (EEA, 1995a; WHO, 1995). The phosphorus concentration in the Rhine is a good example of the decrease that followed efforts initiated in the 1960s to collect and treat sewage before discharge into the river (UNEP, 1995). (See Figure 2.11.)
Loadings of organic matter have decreased in many European rivers as sewage treatment practices have improved. However, this form of freshwater contamination is still widespread in some parts of the region. The worst affected countries in western Europe and CEE are Belgium, Bulgaria, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Italy, the Netherlands, and Poland (EEA, 1995a). A recent 10-year study in the Russian Federation showed that only 21 per cent of 245 rivers were acceptable in terms of bacteriological pollution (WHO, 1995).
Incidents of diseases linked to contamination of water supplies have been recorded in many countries, but especially in CEE and the CIS. Drinking-water samples tested in 1990 illustrate the widespread nature of this problem. In Belarus, 30 per cent of samples did not meet chemical standards and 8 per cent did not meet biological standards; equivalent figures for Uzbekistan were 37 per cent and 15 per cent; for Turkmenistan, they were 31 per cent and 26 per cent (Info. Centre of Goskomstat, USSR, 1991). There are indications that the situation is worsening. In Russia, 30.5 per cent of drinking-water samples from all over the country in 1993 failed to meet acceptable chemical quality standards and 28.25 per cent failed to reach biological ones (Min. of Env. Prot. and Nat. Res. of the Russ. Fed., 1994). The corresponding figures for 1980 were 15.4 per cent and 22.9 per cent (Min. of Env. Prot. and Nat. Res. of the Russ. Fed., 1994).
Recent information shows that the regulations introduced in response to the alarming concentrations of heavy metals in many European lakes and rivers in the 1970s have been effective. In general, concentrations today are well below standards for drinking water; only mercury and cadmium exceed drinking-water standards in some rivers. There are, however, still some heavy-metal "hot spots" associated with mining areas and industries using large quantities of metals that pose a risk to human health. Aquatic communities may still be affected by the lower concentrations prevailing more widely (EEA, 1995a).
Ground and surface water contamination from industrial, communal, and agricultural sources has been identified as one of the three environmental priorities for CEE (REC, 1994). The whole of Lake Baikal, containing 20 per cent of the earth s fresh water, is now affected by pollutants, including oil, even in its most remote and open parts, with only a minor amount (15 per cent) of effluents being treated satisfactorily (Min. of Env. Prot. and Nat. Res. of the Russ. Fed., 1994 and 1995b). In Hungary, large quantities of nitrogen annually seep into ground-water supplies (Environmental Resources Ltd., 1990). In the former Czechoslovakia, mining wastes, SO2, nitrates from fertilizers, and oil are the main causes of water contamination (Environmental Resources Ltd., 1990). In addition, much of the sewage discharge is untreated. Similar situations exist in other CEE countries and significant portions of some major waterways are not fit even for industrial use.
The need for water treatment facilities is critical. Those that do exist function poorly and have inadequate capacity to cope with the level of treatment necessary. Instances of radionuclide contamination in waters associated with nuclear installations and nuclear waste disposal sites have also been reported for this part of the region. The multiple functions of surface waterways, such as the Danube, Elba, and Vistula rivers, also create conflict among users (Environmental Resources Ltd., 1990; EEA, 1995a; REC, 1994).
Ground-water pollution is expected to become increasingly widespread and acute in coming years, particularly because of uncontrolled waste deposits, leakage from petrochemical tanks, and continuing percolation of untreated sewage, pesticides, and other pollutants into aquifers. As the already high proportion of Europe s drinking water from this source is expected to increase, ground-water quality is a priority issue (EEA, 1995a).
Many wetland habitats have been severely disturbed by freshwater-focused tourism and recreation activities together with the extensive physical and chemical modification of lakes and rivers in the region. Wildlife support functions and water purification capacities are particularly at risk. Only a small proportion of wetlands in the region are protected (EEA, 1995a).
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